Charles
the Great (Charlemagne)(742-814)-
creation of papal states made pope a temporal ruler. Pope Leo
III crowned Charlemagne as the "Sword" of the Holy Roman
Empire and set stage for power struggle between church and state.
Hildebrand
(Gregory VII) (c.1021-1085)-
His reform of the papacy enhanced his power as pope. He used excommunication
and interdict as weapons against the ruling state (temporal ruler).
Innocent
III (1161-1216)-
Papal power reaches ultimate power. He claims absolute spiritual
and temporal authority over the Holy Roman Empire.
Paschasius
Radbertus (c.785-865)-
A proponent of transubstantiation.
Gottschalk
(805-868)-
Defended Augustininian doctrine of predestination for which he
was condemned and imprisoned. Treated brutally because of this,
died after 20 years in prison and was denied Christian burial.
Anselm
(1033-1109)-
wrote Cur Deus Homo? (why the God-Man?). Developed
the doctrine of substitutionary atonement. Devised ontological
argument for the existence of God.
Peter
Lombard (1095-c.1159)-
Wrote Sentences, which became the first standard
medieval systematic theology. Emphasized seven sacraments.
Thomas
Aquinas (c.1225-1274)-
Dominican monk. Studied under Albertus Magnus. Wrote based on
his influences from Aristotle and Augustine. The most influential
theologian in the Roman Catholic Church during the second millennium
A.D. Wrote a systematic theology called Summa Theologica.
Benedictines
(529)-
Order founded by Benedict of Nursia in Monte Cassino, Italy. Bede
and Boniface were significant members. This became first monastic
order based on the Benedictine Rule.
Augustinians
(date and place of origin unknown)-
Followed rule of St. Augustine. Thomas a Kempis, Martin Luther
and Gregory of Rimini are significant members.
Dominicans
(1216)-
Order founded by Dominic Guzman in Spain. Used rule of St. Augustine.
Used by popes to root out heresy. Conducted Inquisition. Thomas
Aquinas, Albertus Magnus, Girolama Savonarola are significant
members.
Franciscans
(1223)-
Order founded by Francis of Assisi in Italy. Their original rule
was taken from Scripture alone. Mendicant (begging) preachers
who took vows of absolute poverty. Bonaventure, Duns Scotus, William
of Ockham are significant members.
Medieval
Roman Catholic Theology
The Roman
Catholic theological confusion of Justification and Sanctification:The
sacraments work ex opere operato, by the power of the completed
act, and their validity does not depend on the orthodoxy of the
minister or his state of grace. Grace is infused into the sinner,
through the Sacraments making the sinner righteous, thereby God
will then justify the sinner.
The Roman
Catholic Sacramental Means of Grace
Baptism,
Confirmation, Eucharist, Penance, Extreme Unction, Holy Order,
and Matrimony. The following definitions taken from: Fundamentals
of Catholic Dogma by Ludwig Ott, approved with the Papal
Impramatur.
Baptism:
The
means of the remission of the guilt of original sin. In the case
of adults, baptism also is the means of the eradication of all
personal, mortal, or venial sins. Even when unworthily received,
baptism imprints on the soul an indelible spiritual mark, the
Baptismal Character, and cannot be repeated. The Council of Trent,
Chap. Condemned the denier of this doctrine.
Confirmation:
In
this sacrament by the imposition of hands, unction, and prayer,
a baptized person is filled with the Holy Spirit for the inner
strengthening of the supernatural life and for courageous outward
testimony. By this sacrament baptismal grace is perfected.
The Eucharist:
(the
Greek word means "thanksgiving") It is an early name
for the Lord's Supper, or Holy Communion. The Catholic doctrine
of transubstantiation, first propounded by Paschasius Radbertus
(ca.785-860), was defined as dogma by the Fourth Lateran Council
(1215). The eucharistic sacrifice was first defined as dogma by
the Council of Trent in 1562. The Council stated that the "Same
Christ" is sacrificed in an "unbloody manner, who once
offered himself in a bloody manner on the altar of the cross."
The effects of the Eucharist are unification with Christ and the
preservation and increase of supernatural life, and it is a pledge
of heavenly bliss and future resurrection As a sacrament Christ
is partaken as nourishment for the soul. As a sacrifice He is
offered as a sacrificial gift to God. Ludwig Ott writes, "The
purpose of the sacrifice is the same in the sacrifice of the Mass
as in the Sacrifice of the Cross; primarily the glorification
of God, secondarily atonment, thanksgiving, and appeal."
The Eucharist is atoning...a sacrifice of propitiation and can
be offered "not only for the living, but also for the poor
souls in Purgatory."
Extreme
Unction:
Ott
writes: "It is a Sacrament of the Living. It presupposes
in general the remission of grievous sins. But if a person in
mortal sin is seriously ill and can no longer receive the Sacrament
of Penance, or if he erroneously believes that he is free from
grievous sin, Extreme Unction eradicates the grievous sins per
accidens, but still by reason of Christ's institution." Only
Bishops and Priests can adminster the sacrament.
Penance:
The
act of confession on the part of the penitent, together with the
priest's pronouncement of absolution and his assigning of certain
works to be done by the penitent. In a Roman Catholic training
book called Instructions for Non-Catholics we read: "In
the Sacrament of Penance, God gives the priest the power to bring
sinners back into the state of grace and to prevent them from
falling into the abyss of hell. Moreover, after confession some
temporal punishment due to sin generally remains, and some of
this punishment is taken away in the penance (prayers) the priest
gives you to say. You should perform other acts of penance also
so that you can make up for the temporal punishment due to sin
and to avoid a long stay in purgatory. The Church suggests to
us these forms of penance: prayer, fasting, giving alms in the
name of Christ, the spiritual and corporal works of mercy, the
patient sufferings of the ills of life, and the gaining of indulgences."
(Pg.95)
The Church
of Rome demands acts of Penance before she grants forgiveness,
inferring that the sacrifice of Christ was not sufficient to atone
fully for sin and that it must be supplemented to some extent
by these good works (faith + works -->Justification). God demands
repentance, which means turning from sin, vices, injustice and
all wickedness in whatever form: Isaiah 55:7- "Let the wicked
forsake his way, and the unrighteous man his thoughts; and let
him return unto Jehovah, and he will have mercy upon him; and
to our God, for he will abundantly pardon." From the Greek
New Testament edited by Erasumus, Luther discovered that Jesus
did not say "Do Penance," as interpreted by Rome because
of the Vulgate translation, but "Repent."
Rome teaches
that salvation depends ultimately upon ourselves, upon what we
do, that one can "earn" salvation by obedience to the
laws of the church, indeed that the saints can even store up excess
merits in heaven beyond the requirements of duty, through such
things as regular attendance at church, masses, rosary prayers,
fastings, wearing of crucifixes etc. These excess merits are called
"works of supererogation." Mary and the saints are said
to have stored up vast treasures of merit, from which the pope
can draw and dispense to the faithful as they perform the works
assigned by the priests.
Treasury
of Merit
During the
Medieval period after Gregory I (the Great), Rome spoke of merit
in several ways: 1) Condign Merit (meritum de condigno)
and 2) Congruous Merit (meritum de congruo). In addition,
Rome spoke of a treasury of merit that accrues from the merit
of Christ and the supererogatory merit of Mary and the saints.
The concept of merit was tied closely to the sacrament of penance,
and the indulgence controversy focused heavily on this concept.
The Catechism of the Catholic Church declares: "The doctrine
and practice of indulgences in the Church are closely linked to
the effects of the sacrament of Penance." Rome defines an
indulgence as:
